Mohenjo-daro
Mohenjo-daro
(Part Two)
Urban Planning, System of Governance, Economy, Religion, and Arts
Mohenjo-daro is counted among the few cities of the ancient world where urban planning was carried out through a complete, well-thought-out, and integrated system. If we compare it with the Mesopotamian city of Ur in Mesopotamia, a clear difference emerges. In Ur, the city layout consisted of winding and irregular streets branching out from a central main road—often considered a sign of an organically grown rural settlement. In contrast, the streets of Mohenjo-daro intersect at right angles; they are straight, systematic, and organized, clearly reflecting a planned urban civilization. By this standard, Mohenjo-daro appears to be the product of a highly advanced stage of town planning.
Urban Drainage and Sanitation System
Although the streets were unpaved during the peak period of Mohenjo-daro, beneath them existed well-constructed underground drainage channels. The sophistication, arrangement, and technical excellence of these drains were so remarkable that no parallel is found in the contemporary world of that era. Brick-built manholes were constructed at appropriate intervals, and these were likely cleaned by an organized municipal workforce. This also suggests that sanitation workers were state employees rather than private slaves, operating under an organized civic administration.
Almost every house had its own well, and in some places public wells were also constructed along the streets. Wastewater from houses first collected in small pits, buried jars, or brick-lined drains built along the walls, and then flowed into larger underground street drains so that water would not accumulate on the roads. At important intersections and street corners, small chambers were constructed—probably for guards—indicating strong administrative control over civic order.
Architectural Style and Structure of Houses
In wall construction, bricks were laid in alternating patterns—one row straight and the next transverse—though decorative patterns were also used in some places. Walls were usually plastered on the inside but not on the outside. Evidence suggests that wood was used in roofing, and roofs may have projected outward with small windows or openings above. It is possible that these openings limited outside visibility, especially for women. Architectural beauty appears to have relied more on woodwork, paint, or decorative elements rather than brick ornamentation.
Study of the houses reveals that both wealthy and poor classes lived in the city. Wealthier homes typically had an entrance leading into a courtyard, often opening into a side street rather than the main road. Near the entrance there may have been a place for a guard, followed by a spacious courtyard surrounded by rooms of different sizes. Some houses contained bathrooms with highly durable and carefully constructed floors. Each house had a small opening in the wall for waste disposal, beneath which a brick-built garbage container existed—likely emptied by municipal workers.
Since this was a river-based civilization, abundant use of water and strong emphasis on cleanliness are evident—quite different from desert cultures.
Floods, Decline, and Urban Continuity
Evidence suggests that at least three major floods submerged the entire city. Each time the city was rebuilt, but the quality of architecture, standard of living, and prosperity gradually declined. Eventually, the declining city was destroyed by invaders. According to Yuri Gankovsky, the population of Mohenjo-daro was no less than 100,000.
Interestingly, from the earliest settlement to the final phase, the overall city layout remained unchanged. Streets, routes, and structural alignment were rebuilt repeatedly in the same pattern. Stuart Piggott concluded that either a single ruling family governed for a long period or cultural traditions continued uninterrupted despite changes in power. The latter possibility suggests that continuity was maintained through religious authority, where laws were enforced in the form of religious beliefs.
Citadel, Granary, and Urban Structure
On the western edge of the city stood a massive citadel, roughly rectangular in shape. Its length from north to south was about 400 yards and its width from east to west about 200 yards. The citadel was built on a platform approximately 30 feet high, surrounded by strong baked-brick walls, while the interior was filled with mud bricks. Inside were large halls, rooms, gateways, and platforms. Outside the citadel were workers’ quarters, grain-grinding floors, and a massive granary.
System of Governance and Economy
Nine occupational layers of settlement have been discovered at Mohenjo-daro. Although flood destruction is evident, there is no major change in material culture, language, or script—indicating long-term cultural continuity. Despite trade relations with Mesopotamia, no significant industrial or artistic changes were adopted over nearly 1300 years, suggesting a strong internal system.
The political structure was likely a religious monarchy supported by a developed bureaucratic administration. The state organized collective labor—such as grinding grain, cutting wood, making bricks, and construction. Brick kilns were planned outside the city, though in the period of decline they appear within residential areas.
Agriculture, Trade, and Transportation
Major crops included wheat, barley, sesame, and peas. Evidence also shows cotton cultivation and textile production. The red and madder shades still seen in traditional Sindhi Ajrak reflect ancient dye traditions. Cotton was one of the most important export commodities, especially to Mesopotamia.
Transportation included river boats, bullock carts, horses, and limited use of camels. Bullock carts were the most common, with solid wheels measuring about three and a half feet in diameter.
Religion, Seals, and Sculptures
This was primarily an agricultural civilization, where beliefs related to the Mother Goddess, sacred trees, the Tree of Life, and fertility were prominent. The Great Bath was likely used for ritual purification. The seals depicting deities, animals, and mythological scenes symbolized both religious and administrative authority.
More than 1,200 seals have been discovered at Mohenjo-daro, functioning as official marks of authority or signatures. The engraved animals, deities, and symbolic patterns demonstrate exceptional craftsmanship.
Among the sculptures, the most famous is the bearded priest figure. His shawl resembling Ajrak, ornaments, and dignified posture suggest a religious or political role. Overall, most discovered statues represent religious leaders or deities, highlighting the central role of religion in this civilization.
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